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Family Tree of All Living Things on Earth

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Metaphor for the relationship between species of organisms

The tree of life or universal tree of life is a metaphor, model and research tool used to explore the evolution of life and depict the relationships between organisms, both living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859).[2]

The affinities of all the beings of the same form have sometimes been represented past a bang-up tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth.

—Charles Darwin[3]

Tree diagrams originated in the medieval era to represent genealogical relationships. Phylogenetic tree diagrams in the evolutionary sense appointment back to the mid-nineteenth century.

The term phylogeny for the evolutionary relationships of species through fourth dimension was coined by Ernst Haeckel, who went farther than Darwin in proposing phylogenic histories of life. In gimmicky usage, tree of life refers to the compilation of comprehensive phylogenetic databases rooted at the final universal common ancestor of life on Globe. Ii public databases for the tree of life are TimeTree,[4] for phylogeny and departure times, and the Open up Tree of Life, for phylogeny.

Early copse in natural classification [edit]

Fold-out paleontological nautical chart of Edward Hitchcock in 'Elementary Geology' (1840)

Although tree-like diagrams have long been used to organize knowledge, and although branching diagrams known equally claves ("keys") were omnipresent in eighteenth-century natural history, it appears that the primeval tree diagram of natural order was the "Arbre botanique" (Botanical Tree) of the French schoolteacher and Catholic priest Augustin Augier,[v] first published in 1801.[6] Yet, although Augier discussed his tree in distinctly genealogical terms, and although his blueprint clearly mimicked the visual conventions of a contemporary family tree, his tree did non include any evolutionary or temporal attribute. Consequent with Augier's priestly vocation, the Botanical Tree showed rather the perfect order of nature every bit instituted by God at the moment of Creation.[vii]

In 1809, Augier's more than famous compatriot Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who was acquainted with Augier'southward "Botanical Tree",[8] included a branching diagram of animal species in his Philosophie zoologique.[9] Unlike Augier, however, Lamarck did not discuss his diagram in terms of a genealogy or a tree, but instead named information technology a tableau ("table").[10] Lamarck believed in the transmutation of life forms, but he did not believe in mutual descent; instead he believed that life developed in parallel lineages advancing from more than elementary to more than complex.[xi]

In 1840, the American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864) published the starting time tree-like paleontology nautical chart in his Elementary Geology.[12] On the vertical centrality are paleontological periods. Hitchcock fabricated a split tree for plants (left) and animals (right). The plant and the beast tree are not connected at the lesser of the nautical chart. Furthermore, each tree starts with multiple origins. Hitchcock'southward tree was more realistic than Darwin'due south 1859 theoretical tree (run into below) because Hitchcock used existent names in his trees. It is also truthful that Hitchcock's copse were branching copse. However, they were not evolutionary trees, considering Hitchcock believed that a deity was the amanuensis of change. That was an important difference with Darwin.

The get-go edition of Robert Chambers' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which was published anonymously in 1844 in England, contained a tree-like diagram in the chapter "Hypothesis of the evolution of the vegetable and animal kingdoms".[13] It shows a model of embryological development where fish (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) correspond branches from a path leading to mammals (Thousand). In the text this branching tree thought is tentatively applied to the history of life on earth: "there may be branching",[14] but the branching diagram is non displayed over again specifically for this purpose.[fifteen] However, the paradigm of a branching tree could easily accept inspired others to utilise it explicitly as a representation of the history of life on earth.

In 1858, a twelvemonth before Darwin's Origin, the paleontologist Heinrich Georg Bronn (1800–1862) published a hypothetical tree labeled with messages.[16] Although not a creationist, Bronn did not propose a machinery of alter.[17]

Theory [edit]

Darwin [edit]

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) used the metaphor of a "tree of life" to conceptualize his theory of evolution. In On the Origin of Species (1859) he presented an abstruse diagram of a theoretical tree of life for species of an unnamed big genus (meet figure). On the horizontal base line hypothetical species inside this genus are labelled A – Fifty and are spaced irregularly to indicate how distinct they are from each other, and are higher up broken lines at various angles suggesting that they have diverged from one or more common ancestors. On the vertical centrality divisions labelled I – Xiv each correspond a thousand generations. From A, diverging lines show branching descent producing new varieties, some of which become extinct, so that afterwards ten thousand generations descendants of A have become distinct new varieties or even sub-species a10, f10, and m10. Similarly, the descendants of I accept diversified to become the new varieties westwardten and z10. The process is extrapolated for a further iv chiliad generations so that the descendants of A and I go fourteen new species labelled a14 to z14. While F has connected for xiv thousand generations relatively unchanged, species B,C,D,E,G,H,G and L have gone extinct. In Darwin'due south own words: "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences betwixt species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera.".[xviii] This is a branching pattern with no names given to species, unlike the more than linear tree Ernst Haeckel made years afterward (figure below) which includes the names of species and shows a more linear development from "lower" to "higher" species. In his summary to the section, Darwin put his concept in terms of the metaphor of the tree of life:

Page from Darwin'south notebooks around July 1837, showing his outset sketch of an evolutionary tree, with the words "I call up" at the top

The affinities of all the beings of the aforementioned form have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may correspond existing species; and those produced during each former year may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each catamenia of growth all the growing twigs have tried to co-operative out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the aforementioned manner as species and groups of species take tried to overmaster other species in the dandy boxing for life. The limbs divided into keen branches, and these into bottom and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the erstwhile and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush-league, only ii or three, now grown into bully branches, yet survive and conduct all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few at present have living and modified descendants. From the beginning growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has rust-covered and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may stand for those whole orders, families, and genera which have at present no living representatives, and which are known to the states just from having been found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a sparse straggling branch springing from a fork low downwardly in a tree, and which by some chance has been favoured and is withal alive on its meridian, so we occasionally see an fauna like the Ornithorhynchus or Lepidosiren, which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches of life, and which has plainly been saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a protected station. As buds requite rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, co-operative out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the chaff of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.

The meaning and importance of Darwin's use of the tree of life metaphor have been extensively discussed by scientists and scholars. Stephen Jay Gould, for one, has argued that Darwin placed the famous passage quoted above "at a crucial spot in his text", where it marked the conclusion of his argument for natural option, illustrating both the interconnectedness past descent of organisms likewise every bit their success and failure in the history of life.[20] David Penny has written that Darwin did not use the tree of life to describe the relationship between groups of organisms, but to suggest that, as with branches in a living tree, lineages of species competed with and supplanted one some other.[21] Petter Hellström has argued that Darwin consciously named his tree later the biblical Tree of Life, as described in Genesis, thus relating his theory to the religious tradition.[10]

Haeckel [edit]

  • Haeckel'south Stammbaum der Primaten (1860s)

  • Haeckel's tree of life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)

  • The tree of life every bit seen by Haeckel in The Development of Man (1879)

Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) constructed several copse of life. His first sketch (in the 1860s) of his famous tree of life shows "Pithecanthropus alalus" equally the ancestor of Man sapiens. His 1866 tree of life from Generelle Morphologie der Organismen shows iii kingdoms: Plantae, Protista and Animalia. His 1879 'Pedigree of Man' was published in The Evolution of Man.

Proposals for top levels [edit]

Linnaeus
1735[22] 		Haeckel
1866[23] 		Chatton
1925[24] [25] 		Copeland
1938[26] [27] 		Whittaker
1969[28] 		Woese et al.
1977[29] [30] 		Woese et al.
1990[31] 		Condescending-Smith
1993[32] [33] [34] 		Condescending-Smith
1998[35] [36] [37] 		Ruggiero et al.
2015[38]
— — 2 empires 2 empires ii empires ii empires 3 domains 3 superkingdoms 2 empires 2 superkingdoms
2 kingdoms three kingdoms — 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 6 kingdoms — 8 kingdoms vi kingdoms 7 kingdoms
— Protista Prokaryota Monera Monera Eubacteria Bacteria Eubacteria Bacteria Bacteria
Archaebacteria Archaea Archaebacteria Archaea
Eukaryota Protista Protista Protista Eucarya Archezoa Protozoa Protozoa
Protozoa
Chromista Chromista Chromista
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Various authors have proposed different schemes for the pinnacle level of the tree of cellular life.

Taxonomical root node Two superdomains (controversial) Two empires 3 domains Five Dominiums [39] 5 kingdoms 6 kingdoms Eocyte hypothesis
Biota / Vitae / Life Acytota / Aphanobionta - Non-cellular life Virusobiota (Viruses, Viroids)
Prionobiota (Prions)
Cytota
cellular life 		Prokaryota / Procarya
(Monera) 		Bacteria Bacteria Monera Eubacteria Bacteria
Archaea Archaea Archaebacteria Archaea including eukaryotes
Eukaryota / Eukarya Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Run into also: Virus classification
Some authors have added a classification for non-cellular life.

Developments since 1990 [edit]

In 1990, Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis proposed a "tree of life" consisting of three lines of descent for which they introduced the term domain as the highest rank of classification. They besides suggested the terms leaner, archaea and eukaryota for the three domains.[40]

The model of a tree is nonetheless considered valid for eukaryotic life forms. As of 2010[update], research into the earliest branches of the eukaryote tree has suggested a tree with either four[41] [42] or 2 supergroups.[43] There does not nevertheless appear to exist a consensus; in a review article, Roger and Simpson conclude that "with the current pace of modify in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should go on with caution."[44]

In 2015, the first draft of the Open Tree of Life was published, in which information from most 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to scan and download.[45]

In 2016, a new tree of life, summarizing the evolution of all known life forms, was published, illustrating the latest genetic findings that the branches were mainly equanimous of bacteria. The new study incorporated over a thousand newly discovered leaner and archaea.[46] [47] [1]

Horizontal cistron transfer [edit]

The prokaryotes (the two domains of leaner and archaea) and certain animals such as bdelloid rotifers[48] have the ability to transfer genetic information between unrelated organisms through horizontal gene transfer. Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and factor creation are a few of the processes past which genes can be transferred within and between bacterial and archaeal species, causing variation that is not due to vertical transfer.[49] [fifty] [51] In that location is emerging testify of horizontal factor transfer within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level, and then the tree of life does non explain the full complexity of the situation in the prokaryotes.[50]

Bacteria Archaea Eucaryota Aquifex Thermotoga Cytophaga Bacteroides Bacteroides-Cytophaga Planctomyces Cyanobacteria Proteobacteria Spirochetes Gram-positive bacteria Green filantous bacteria Pyrodicticum Thermoproteus Thermococcus celer Methanococcus Methanobacterium Methanosarcina Halophiles Entamoebae Slime mold Animal Fungus Plant Ciliate Flagellate Trichomonad Microsporidia Diplomonad

A speculatively rooted tree for rRNA genes, showing the three life domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota, and linking the three branches of living organisms to the LUCA (the blackness torso at the bottom of the tree), 2009

See also [edit]

  • Bacterial phyla
  • Cladistics
  • Common descent
  • Coral of life
  • History of evolutionary idea
  • Holism
  • Horizontal factor transfer
  • Last universal common antecedent
  • Mass extinctions
  • Nomenclature codes
  • Phylogenetic tree
  • Symbiogenesis
  • Taxonomic rank
  • Tree of Life Web Project

References [edit]

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  4. ^ TimeTree
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  45. ^ "First comprehensive tree of life shows how related you are to millions of species"
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Further reading [edit]

  • Darwin, Charles (1859), On the Origin of Species by Ways of Natural Option, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.), London: John Murray, ISBN978-i-4353-9386-viii
  • Darwin, Charles (1872), "The Origin of Species past Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life", Nature (6th ed.), London: John Murray, five (121): 318–319, Bibcode:1872Natur...v..318B, doi:10.1038/005318a0, ISBN978-ane-4353-9386-viii, PMC5184128, PMID 30164232, S2CID 4042779
  • Doolittle, Westward. F.; Bapteste, E. (2007). "Countdown Article: Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences. 104 (seven): 2043–2049. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.2043D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610699104. PMC1892968. PMID 17261804.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life Web Project - explore consummate phylogenetic tree interactively
  • Tree of Life Evolution Links species on Earth through a shared evolutionary history
  • Science journal issue - Issue devoted to the tree of life.
  • The Tree of Life by Garrett Neske, The Wolfram Demonstrations Projection: "presents an interactive tree of life that allows you to explore the relationships betwixt many unlike kinds of organisms past assuasive you to select an organism and visualize the clade to which it belongs."
  • The Greenish Tree of Life - Hyperbolic tree University of California/Jepson Herbaria
  • NCBI'southward taxonomy database common tree

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_life_%28biology%29

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